The Philippine Transport System
The Philippines has a unique and intricate transportation system given the crisis, issues, and even opportunities that it poses. The World Bank (2019) states that infrastructure in the transportation landscape is significant in enhancing the economic progress of a country, which is applicable in the Philippines. One of the Philippines’ initiatives in improving its transportation infrastructure is through its Build, Build, Build project which intends to increase local and foreign investments (Sejko & Park, 2021). Despite these developments through various projects, Miller (2020) claims that the Philippines, particularly its citizens, still faces gaps, limitations, and heavy traffic congestion on roads that affect productivity and efficiency among individuals and businesses.
The Philippines continues to face challenges and changes in its transportation system that have resulted in crises in recent years. One of the critical challenges is traffic congestion, particularly in Metro Manila. One of the reforms developed is the creation of a busway on one of the busiest roads in the country, Epifanio Delos Santos Avenue (EDSA), as implemented by the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board and other concerned agencies. The busway was established during the transport and mobility issues brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic (Gaspay et al., 2023).
More than 80% of families in Metro Manila were affected by the health and transport crisis during the pandemic. Due to the suspension of public transport, they were not able to have an efficient way of accessing hospitals and other healthcare facilities in the area, which had a negative impact on their lives (Sunio et al., 2023). The same impact has been felt by Filipinos during times of flooding, which brought increased levels of traffic congestion and thus increased the level of risk (Abad & Fillone, 2019).
The studies above present the current situation of the Philippine transport system and its challenges; thus, more studies and plans should be made to address the crisis and to adapt to various situations on health accessibility and natural disasters.
The Jeepney Modernization Program
The jeepneys are part of Filipino commuters’ daily life. An iconic symbol when it comes to the Philippine transport landscape that revolves around and reflects the social and cultural identity of Filipinos and provides economic benefits to the Philippines (Parrucho & Padullo, 2023). The jeepneys have been used for transport in the country for almost 80 years (Roces, 2023).
Further, as claimed by the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada, jeepneys are considered “the Backbone of Public Transport in [the] Philippines” (p.1, Lee et al., 2023) since these are considered an affordable means of commuting, especially for low-income Filipinos and students (Lee et al., 2023). This is similar to the claim of Ong et al. (2023) that jeepneys are affordable and, at the same time, accessible and capable of carrying many passengers and are, hence, preferred by many commuters.
On the other hand, jeepneys, considered the “King of the Road” (Torre et al., 2019), also face criticisms. It has been claimed that jeepneys contribute to environmental issues, with emissions 2000 times higher than the standard level, due to the old engines in the aging fleet (Kecorius et al., 2017 as cited in Gonzales et al., 2025). In effect, this will result in safety and service concerns that need to be addressed through policies, as suggested by Velasco (2024). The jeepney phase-out, set for 31 December 2023, is part of the Philippine government’s plan for PUV Modernization. This plan requires operators to consolidate or join into cooperatives and replace old jeepneys that fail to meet the emission standards (Roces, 2023). However, as of February 2025, it was reported that the Jeepney Modernization Program has not yet been completed due to delays in vehicle conversion and jeepney route rationalization and was assumed to be completed in 2029 (Cabuenas, 2025).
The Philippine government, through the previous and current administration, intends to implement such modernization; however, the jeepney drivers, operators, and transport groups do not agree with this urgency, given the high cost of a modern jeep that would affect their daily lives (Lee et al., 2023). Similarly, aside from phasing out the drivers’ jeepneys, they are also pressured to be members of transport cooperatives, as required by the new initiative; however, a legislator stated that this move places the livelihoods of drivers and operators at risk. It was claimed in a report that this will worsen the transport crisis in the Philippines (Crisostomo, 2023).
In addition, Kusuma (2023) states that this move of the government is against the poor as the modernized jeepneys cost multiple times more than the traditional ones. The article also added, citing Piston’s statement, that this initiative shows poor economic quality in the Philippines (Kusuma, 2023). Based on the news article published by Rappler, as stated by groups, there could be 30,000 jeepney drivers off the road by 2024 (Pangue, 2023). However, it was mentioned in an article published by Yu (2024), that as of July 2024, that there were still 31,818 (16.6%) unconsolidated units. The national president of Pagkakaisa ng mga Samahan ng mga Tsuper at Operator Nationwide or PISTON (a group of drivers and operators), as cited in Rivas (2023), states that they do not have problems with the Jeepney Modernization Program; however, they urge the government to provide enough support for the drivers.
Civic groups in the country formed a coalition that supports the drivers and operators of jeepneys – the Ad Hoc Coalition of Filipino Creatives. It campaigns to “Save the Jeepney” (Pangue, 2023). The said group also initiated an online petition and poster exhibition, and more importantly, encouraged Filipinos to spread the word.
The said campaign started in 2017 when the PUV Modernization program was initiated in 2017 during the Duterte administration. Solidarity among groups like the Ecumenical Institute for Labor Education and Research, PISTON, and the No to Jeepney Phaseout Coalition supported the movement. Given this, spreading the word through social media by these groups and the general public has been present; thus, the focus of this study.
The Use of Hashtags (#NoToJeepneyPhaseout) for Campaigning National Issues in the Philippines
The use of hashtags on social media has played a vital role in facilitating national movements in the Philippines (Lacsa, 2021). Similarly, Agustya et al. (2023) assert the cruciality of hashtags for social movements. They claimed that hashtags help organize information and disseminate it to the target audience. Such activities on social media channels, like X, may raise awareness that supports achieving one or various Sustainable Development Goals and engaging policymakers (Latif et al., 2024). This claim also supports the study of Rulandari (2024), which emphasized the value of public participation in Indonesia, through discourses on X, which is vital in drafting national policies.
Considering the nature of the #NoToJeepneyPhaseout campaign that calls for support among netizens, this could be an effective way to promote awareness about the issue and rally for support (Choo et al., 2022). For instance, X has been utilized by social movement organizations to campaign with regard to the Black Lives Matter campaign. It was mentioned that framing on social media, through posts, provides alignment for social movements and shapes narratives and information that the audience needs to know (Mendelsohn et al., 2024).
Drawing on research on the use of hashtags in other social campaigns and discourse, we will critically analyze the use of #NoToJeepneyPhaseout in posts on X. This research study aims to answer the question:
RQ1: How do individual users of X frame their posts using the hashtag #NoToJeepneyPhaseout?
Specifically, these are the objectives of this study:
-
To determine the elements, both visual (digital posters only) and textual, of the selected posts on X that used the hashtag #NoToJeepneyPhaseout
-
To describe the combined visual and textual elements through the construction of meanings from the selected posts on X that used the hashtag, #NoToJeepneyPhaseout
-
To analyze the meanings constructed and how these contribute to social dynamics in terms of law, community structure, technology, and culture.
This research study utilized critical discourse analysis (CDA), which is qualitative in nature and examines discourses and how these shape and frame us (Toolan, 1997). Van Dijk (2015) added that CDA provides the origins of social power and inequality among discourses within the social and political landscape and determines how these discourses are reproduced.
We not only considered the texts of posts using #NoToJeepneyPhaseout, but also the digital posters in some posts. Muhtarogullari (2021) recommends using CDA to analyze to the meaning of images shared online. This is also supported Ilyas and Afzal (2021) who say language, both verbal and visual, is an indication of discourse that turns into knowledge.
Methods and Data Gathering Procedure
This research study utilized a qualitative research design. The data was obtained from X through its search bar.
The study only selected posts posted by individual users or the general public, excluding transport groups’ accounts, which started the use of the #NoToJeepneyPhaseout. Given this, this study utilized a purposive sampling technique. In addition, the said campaign emerged when groups and individuals organized several transport strikes to oppose the government’s deadline of December 31, 2023 for jeepneys to consolidate into cooperatives.
Using my X account, I selected 30 posts following the criteria set: i.e., posts should contain #NoToJeepneyPhaseout and a digital poster that excludes photographs, GIFs, and text-based images, whether the context shows agreement or disagreement with the said campaign – the #NoToJeepneyPhaseout started in March 2023. Further, the number of tweets were not the entire dataset but chosen based on the specified criteria mentioned. I collected the data for ten days (June 15-24, 2024) and organized it in a Microsoft Excel file wherein the repertory grid was created. Posts in languages/dialects other than English and Filipino were omitted from the sample of the study.
The posts selected were arranged and analyzed using a repertory grid. First, the posts were organized through various columns that will include their numbers (1-30 as a guide), the date posted, the posted text (sub-columns for language use and tone), and the posted image(s) (sub-columns for subject, form, and meaning). The sub-columns were subjected to categorizations to reveal the patterns and thematic similarities within the discourse.
When the data was collected, the objects of the study were analyzed systematically through the identification of language, use, and tone for texts and subject, form, and meaning for images, anchored to the CDA framework. Moreover, when the data was interpreted utilizing CDA, this was further analyzed to look at the social dynamics present particularly in terms of law, community structure, technology, and culture, based on Utama (2021). This is to enhance the reliability and validity of the study.
To analyze social dynamics, I used methods described by Utama (2021) that focus on the impact of a policy and how the public interacts with groups and individuals. Utama (2021) mentioned in his study that the following elements of social dynamics are present in a phenomenon: “law, technology, community structure, culture, social stratification, and advanced education” (p.6).
Considering the nature of this study, the text in the framework covers the selected posts that included the hashtag #NoToJeepneyPhaseout, considering both text and images. These posts were described based on the language use and tone for texts and the subject, form, and meaning for images/visual elements. The posts are described and interpreted by identifying the patterns/categories of the texts and images followed by recurring themes.
Lastly, the interpreted data are explained anchoring the factors that contribute to social dynamics, specifically to the first four identified by Utama (2021). Merging the nature of the study, social dynamics, and the CDA framework, Figure 2 shows the conceptual framework of our study.
Results
Utilizing CDA, the data was analyzed through visual and textual analysis by identifying open, axial, and selective codes. Each theme below also describes the visual (digital posters) and textual elements present in the selected posts and provides meaning to address the first and second objectives of this study.
Exclusion
Jeepney drivers are left behind based on the posts made. Two said that the Philippines is in the process of recovery and growth; however, jeepney drivers are excluded due to the implementation of the PUV modernization program. In addition, three more posts showed symbolism, through both digital posters and texts, of how the jeepney drivers are being left – a jeepney driver is dragged into the ground while holding onto a sign on the back of a jeepney that says “Kabuhayan” (livelihood) (Figure 3); a jeepney being buried (Figure 4); and a jeepney driver is being strangled and covered.
Oppression
Jeepneys, as a symbol for jeepney drivers, are oppressed by the government as illustrated in some of the selected posts. The #NoToJeepneyPhaseout was consistently present in the digital posters and at the same time the photo of the current Philippine president with a body of a dragon-like creature ingesting the jeepney and reaching it also in a fire (Figure 5). The other one was placed in a red background emphasizing that the roads are for the mass (image) and not for the capitalists (caption); hence, found to have a strong language battling for equity.
Cultural Retention
Jeepneys and their drivers were able to develop an identity that is unique to them and Filipinos. These were shown on the digital posters posted by the selected X users: one shows a group of delighted passengers inside the jeepney; while the other one is a child playing on the handrails, which is usually done by children when a jeepney is not currently making a trip. In addition, objects and texts common to jeepneys are also illustrated in the posters: the use of the good morning towel among the drivers (Figure 7), the No Smoking and Fare placards inside, and the colorful exterior of the jeepneys. Given these, cultural retention is incorporated into the posts, particularly on the digital posters posted on X.
Unification
The commuters, the public, and the jeepney drivers are called to unify by some posts. The text of these posts focus on a call to action; opposing the jeepney phaseout is a battle not only for jeepney drivers but also for commuters. This is the same case with the other three posts with digital posters, but the texts focus on interrogative sentences – asking the audience/public if it can support and fight for the jeepney drivers. Images of vehicles and rallies were placed on the posters – these were illustrated through people walking together, symbolizing unification among them as they carried a banner, which says “No To Jeepney Phaseout. No to PUV Modernization” (Figure 8). One digital poster shows a hand-in-hand gesture showing the act of passing the fare – conveying unification to fight for the jeepney drivers (Figure 9).
Compassion
Jeepney drivers were given compassion by selected X users. Although the texts of posts presented various emotions, these still expressed concern for jeepney drivers. Four of the posts provided a dedication – dedicating users’ self-made posters for the jeepney drivers. One of the other two posts shows an empty jeepney, encouraging more passengers or people to fight for the jeepney drivers (Figure 10) and the other one wishes readers a Merry Christmas (as text) and shows an image of the Holy Family on the jeepney with sign “Masa ang Mesias” (The Mass is the Messiah) (Figure 11). The latter shows the struggles of the common Filipinos and compares them to what was faced by Jesus before.
Heroization
Jeepney drivers and commuters are elevated as heroes in the posts as these presented images of fictional and non-fictional heroes on the digital posters. The posts show that the phasing out of this mode of transportation is something that the jeepney drivers should fight against, like heroes do. They were also dubbed as heroes, playing an essential role in society: providing an affordable means of transportation for the common people. Moreover, the commuters were also recognized as heroes, citing their responsibility in fighting for #NoToJeepneyPhaseout. These were presented through the images of the heroes riding the jeepney (Figures 12 & 13).
Analysis of Social Dynamics
In addressing the third objective of this study, I developed a theoretical model based on the six themes that emerged from this study (see Figure 14).
The results of the study partly confirm the manifestation of social dynamics anchoring on four out of six factors identified: “including law, technology, community structure, culture…” (Utama, 2021, p. 6). The results of this study can be anchored on these factors having the PUV Modernization Act as the law (1) that prompted the movement on X, #NoToJeepneyPhaseout; thus, the usage of technology (2).
Discussion
The exclusion of jeepney drivers in progress and development is presented through various symbols on the digital posters – dragged, buried, and strangled. This can be anchored to the study of Awad and Wagoner (2020), that symbolic illustrations are vital for a group in creating a call to action and building solidarity towards advocacy or protest.
Meanwhile, the posts framing the government’s oppression are similar to what happened in the United States in 2016, particularly due to the implementation of new laws by the Trump administration. The goal is to continue raising issues to the government, as claimed in the study of Vasquez, et al. (2021). In addition, in a discourse study conducted in Ghana, it was revealed that online campaigns against social injustice (Nartey & Yu, 2023).
The results related to cultural retention support the study of Akkus et al. (2019) stating social protests that fight against oppression and social divide and incorporate the value of culture can gain support from the public. Akkus et al. (2019). It also revealed that the public in Turkey supports a movement as they want to hold these cultural identities; hence this is the same case with the case of jeepneys in the Philippines. Jeepney is a part of the Filipino cultural identity, as mentioned in the article by Cruz (2023); thus, many Filipinos are aware of this. The study of Lu et al. (2020) claimed that this awareness of culture improves people’s involvement in social movements like protests and rallies which is also similar to the study of Akkus et al. (2019)) mentioned above.
With regard to posts that show unification, X has been widely used for social movements, particularly the use of hashtags. For instance, in Thailand, hashtags on X have been utilized to encourage the public to unify and support causes that promote democracy; however, it also revealed that the platform is being used due to its convenience; thus, attention to these posts is momentary (Sinpeng, 2021). In addition, the call for unification is similar to that found by Dogu (2019), suggesting posts can be utilized in unifying groups and individuals to push for change or progress.
The study of the Ibon Foundation (2023) claims that the transport system in the Philippines has been problematic for several years, making it a crisis. The posts studied herein provided compassion to jeepney drivers, considering the jeepney modernization a part of the said crisis; hence, as claimed by Shi et al. (2023), promoting increased participation and positive public emotions. Similarly, these tweet posts and user-made digital posters increase engagement on causes (Berestova et al., 2022)
This emergence of the concept of heroes is also present in the study of Laineste and Fiadotava (2023), specifically mentioning the context if a social conflict is taking place. Heroes were illustrated in this study to support the jeepney drivers; however, Mohammed et al. (2021) argued that discourse analysis on heroes is not limited to support or appreciation, to nurses, in this their case, but also to make concessions. Further, the idea of heroization has been studied, through a discourse, having medical professionals as research subjects, stating that these are metaphors being presented in times of conflict or crisis (Taskaeva, 2021), which; hence, is similar to the results of this study having the posts with jeepney drivers as subjects.
Generally, it shows that the posts were framed as exclusion and oppression and anchored on the core of Critical Discourse Analysis showing the social inequality and government control (Van Dijk, 2015).
Moreover, focusing on themes that prevailed in this study, unification, compassion, and heroization, can be anchored to community structure, as it was – this has been defined in the study by Berenhaut et al. (2022) as the relationship being established among groups and individuals to understand the reality. The said relationship, relating to critical discourse analysis, can be referred to as the Power as it presents the relationship between the members of the society, as claimed in the study of Al-Zubaidi (2022), particularly with the results/ themes indicating social inequalities.
Lastly, cultural retention results can be anchored to the claim of Triandis (2019) as culture influences how individuals understand diversity in the social context; thus, it is incorporated in the posts and illustrated, as well, in the digital posters.
Conclusion and Recommendations
X users framed the #NoToJeepneyPhaseout posts presented through texts and digital posters that focus on the concerns brought about by the policy implemented by the Philippine government, the PUV Modernization program, particularly the phaseout of jeepneys. This is why the content also showed the various ways, such as a call for unification and compassion for and heroization of jeepney drivers, reflecting the relationship being established among Filipinos. However, it can be mentioned that public opinion, through various social media and even traditional channels, may have formed prior to the implementation of the PUV modernization program, given the findings of the study. This supports the findings of Rulandari (2024) that inclusive participation of the citizens is vital prior to implementing public policies. Even though the content focused on fighting for the jeepneys, drivers, and commuters, the presence of culture was also present in many of the posts published.
The meanings constructed determined the presence of social dynamics; hence, we can conclude that this is critical for theorizing phenomena that concern social issues and the lives of groups or individuals due to a policy being implemented by a government. The proposed theory/model herein could be a good starting point in realizing the needs of the oppressed and marginalized, which is related to the usage of platforms, like X, and digital posters to communicate to concerned policymakers.
This study also recommends future researchers conduct a study on how the Philippine government engaged and consulted the public prior to the passage of the PUV modernization program – theories focusing on the spectrum of public participation maybe utilized.