International tourism is rebounding significantly, reaching levels comparable to before the COVID-19 outbreak. According to a report from the World Tourism Organization, the number of travelers doubled in the first quarter of 2023 compared to the same period in 2022. Globally, the tourism industry has recovered to 80% of its pre-pandemic levels, with over 960 million tourists traveling abroad last year, marking a return to two-thirds of its pre-COVID numbers (World Tourism Organization, 2023).
Tourism has a considerable economic impact on Thailand. In the past few years, the COVID-19 pandemic heavily affected the tourism industry. However, Thailand’s tourist economy has been recovering steadily since the government allowed international tourist arrivals again in 2022. In Thailand, the influx of foreign tourists during the first three months of 2023 (January 1 - March 31) totaled 6.4 million, a significant increase compared to the same period in 2022. Monthly figures show that in January, there were 2.1 million foreign tourists, in February there were 2.1 million, and in March there were 2.2 million. During this period, they have generated a total income of 256.1 billion baht (approximately 7.6 billion USD) from foreign tourists. East Asia accounted for the majority of tourists at 56.8% followed by Europe at 26.5%, with other regions (including India, the United States, Australia, Israel, Canada, and Saudi Arabia) contributing 16.7%. The top countries of origin for foreign tourists to Thailand in the first quarter were Malaysia, Russia, China, South Korea, and India (Public Relations Department Press Office, 2023).
Tourism is crucial in generating income for Thailand across various industries, from upstream to downstream. This influx of foreign and domestic tourists enhances the country’s international trade balance, showcasing the sector’s vital economic impact. Tourism has a considerable economic impact on the country. In 2023, the total tourism revenue generated by international tourists in Thailand exceeded one hundred billion Thai baht (2,967,359,000 USD) almost monthly, resulting in over one trillion Thai baht (29,673,590,000 USD) revenue for the entire year (Statista, 2024).
Youth as Tourists
The global youth travel market consistently contributes significantly to international travel and is expected to continue doing so. The population of young people aged 15 to 24 is projected to grow to over 1.3 billion by 2040, with a notable increase in the next decade before growth rates stabilize after 2030. The proportion of young people in developed economies will decline while emerging economies will increase, boosting global youth travel from these regions. Youth tourism is a high-value market, with global youth travel expenditure expected to exceed 400 billion USD by 2020, representing over 23% of the more than one billion international tourists annually (Saikia et al., 2018).
A study in 2003 indicated the youth, particularly university students, represent a significant and growing tourism market segment (Richards & Wilson, 2003). The World Youth Student & Educational (WYSE) Travel Confederation report released in March 2023 confirmed that youth travel has long been a significant segment of international travel in terms of the number of trips taken and the volume of spending, indicating a substantial global presence of youth travelers, as follows. The proportion of international travelers aged 15-29 increased from 21% in 2002 to 23% in 2012 and remained stable at 23% in 2019. The total volume of international youth travel grew from under 150 million in 2002 to over 330 million in 2019, a 126% increase.
According to WYSE Travel Confederation’s New Horizons survey, the average number of long international trips (more than seven nights) by youth increased from 1.7 in 2007 to over two trips in 2017, reflecting a 20% growth over a decade. Youth travel expenditure reached a record two hundred ninety-five billion euros (three hundred thirty-three billion USD) in 2019, significantly higher than the 114 billion EUR (136 billion USD) spent in 2005 (WYSE Travel Confederation, 2023). This growth is driven by increased travel participation and frequency among young people and the expansion of new travel markets in emerging economies, particularly in Asia and Latin America.
For young people, travel is more than just leisure; it’s an essential part of their lives. Emerging trends in the decision-making process indicate drastic changes in the travel behavior and expectations of Generation Z compared to previous generations. Members of Generation Z have a desire to know new cultures. They value brands of places, goods, or products based on social and environmental responsibility. Furthermore, they are planning vacations that will offer them one-of-a kind experiences, being willing to allocate a larger budget for travel in the next period, valuing connections over things (Popșa, 2024). They are usually early adopters of new trends, have flexible travel schedules, and are inclined towards experiential and adventure travel (Pendergast, 2010). As digital natives, their travel preferences and experiences shared on social media can significantly influence broader travel trends and destination popularity (Cavagnaro et al., 2018). Engaging youth (15-24-year-olds) can lead to long-term benefits, as positive experiences foster brand loyalty and repeat visits (United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) & World Youth Student and Educational (WYSE) Travel Confederation, 2016). Therefore, focusing on youth perspectives is crucial for shaping effective tourism strategies that cater to the emerging preferences of future travelers (Mirea et al., 2021; United Nations World Tourism Organization, 2011).
Phuket and Pattaya: Premier Destinations for International Tourists
Phuket and Pattaya are two of Thailand’s most renowned cities and attractive destinations for international tourists (Public Relations Department Press Office, 2023; Tourism Authority of Thailand, 2023a). Their appeal lies in a unique combination of natural beauty, cultural richness, educational opportunities, affordable living, safety, and career prospects.
Phuket: A Comprehensive Overview of Tourism, Economic Development, and Educational Opportunities
Phuket, known as the “Pearl of the Andaman,” is celebrated for its stunning beaches, vibrant nightlife, and rich cultural heritage, supported by a well-developed tourism infrastructure. The 19th-century tin-mining boom brought many Chinese laborers, whose influence is still seen in Phuket’s architecture, temples, and festivals (Tourism Authority of Thailand, n.d.; Travel Weekly, n.d.).
Today, Phuket is a bustling destination, particularly appealing to younger travelers seeking high stimulation. With over 3.5 million visitors annually, it is one of Thailand’s wealthiest provinces. Attractions such as Old Phuket Town and Kata Beach and adventurous day trips to islands like Koh Phi Phi and James Bond Island make it a top choice for international travelers seeking relaxation and excitement. The island is known for its luxurious resorts, bustling markets, and thrilling activities (Tourism Authority of Thailand, 2023c).
Phuket offers several tertiary education opportunities, including Phuket Rajabhat University and Prince of Songkla University’s Phuket Campus. Phuket Rajabhat University provides a range of undergraduate and graduate programs across various disciplines, including business, hospitality, and social sciences. Prince of Songkla University’s Phuket Campus offers marine science, tourism, and management programs. These institutions contribute to the region’s growing educational landscape and support local and international students seeking higher education in a vibrant island setting (Phuket Rajabhat University, 2023; Prince of Songkla University, 2023).
Pattaya: A Hub of Tourism, Business, and Education
Pattaya, a vibrant coastal city on the picturesque east coast of the Gulf of Thailand, has transformed from a small fishing village into a vibrant hub for tourism, business, and education. Renowned for its lively nightlife, beautiful beaches, and diverse entertainment options, Pattaya’s dynamic atmosphere attracts many international and domestic tourists annually, significantly fueling the city’s economy. This city boasts bustling markets, luxury resorts, water sports, and cultural sites like the Sanctuary of Truth, contributing to its unique charm and broad appeal (Tourism Authority of Thailand, 2023b).
While tourism is the primary economic driver, Pattaya also benefits from construction, retail, and services growth. Since 2019, the Eastern Special Development Zone Act, the so-called EEC (Eastern Economic Corridor), has positioned the city as a focal point for meetings, incentives, conferences, and exhibitions (MICE), boosting its tourism-driven economy (Hansasooksin et al., 2024). Moreover, Maneethorn et al. (2023) found that the strategic development of Pattaya City administration strengthened sustainable support for a livable city, promoting the organization’s potential towards becoming a regional hub, and developing towards a global tourism economy.
In addition to its economic and touristic appeal, Pattaya hosts several notable educational institutions, such as Burapha University’s Pattaya Campus and the Pattaya Business School Burapha University offers undergraduate and graduate business, hospitality, and international relations programs, while the Pattaya Business School focuses on business administration and management courses (Burapha University, 2023). These institutions cater to Thai and international students, benefiting from Pattaya’s dynamic environment and tourism-driven economy.
In conclusion, Phuket and Pattaya exemplify Thailand’s transformation into premier tourism, business, and education destinations. Both cities enhance Thailand’s global appeal and demonstrate the country’s ability to support and attract diverse interests in leisure, business, and higher education.
Statement of the Problem
Youth travel is a rapidly expanding segment in international tourism, compelling destinations to adapt their strategies to cater to this dynamic demographic. As tourism rebounds globally, understanding the preferences and perceptions of young travelers is crucial for maintaining a competitive edge in the industry.
This study investigates the perceptions of Asian university students regarding two prominent Thai cities, Phuket and Pattaya, with a focus on their city image, defining attributes, levels of information exposure, perceived familiarity, and intentions to visit.
By exploring the relationship between information exposure, familiarity, and visitation intentions, the study provides actionable insights into enhancing Phuket and Pattaya’s appeal and competitiveness. These findings aim to support targeted tourism strategies and marketing campaigns that leverage the preferences of young travelers, fostering sustainable growth and maximizing the potential of this burgeoning market segment.
Literature Review
City Image and Attributes
City Image
Researchers (Alaeddinoglu & Can, 2010; Kotler et al., 2022) have studied tourism destination image for nearly three decades because it helps shape marketing strategies and influences tourists’ decisions. City image is how the public perceives the city. In the context of cities, it refers to people’s overall perception or mental picture of a city. This perception is influenced by multiple factors, including the city’s physical environment, cultural offerings, economic activities, social atmosphere, and overall reputation. Contributing to those images are five qualities that Lynch (1960) identifies as paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmark. City image influences how residents, visitors, and potential investors view and interact with a city, impacting tourism, investment, and the city’s attractiveness as a place to live and work. The mental image of a city is a collective perception shaped by its spatiotemporal characteristics and experienced by many inhabitants, built from symbolic elements like iconic landmarks and spaces that create a “heat map” of emotional perception, helping residents identify with specific urban areas and form local identity (Latypova et al., 2021). The image of a place is usually significant in attracting visitors, and place image research has been particularly prevalent in tourism studies (Richards & Wilson, 2004).
Cities have used cultural events to enhance their image, drive urban development, and attract visitors and investment, as demonstrated by Rotterdam’s 2001 Cultural Capital of Europe event, which aimed to boost tourism and position the city as a cultural destination; however, evaluations from over 2,000 questionnaires and interviews revealed that, despite improvements in the city’s cultural image, its modern architecture and working-class identity remained prominent (Richards & Wilson, 2004). The study of Su et al. (2023) categorizes urban images into four types: landmark buildings, natural landscapes, public spaces, and cultural life. By analyzing Weibo images, the research aims to determine which aspects—historical and cultural significance, scenic views like Wugui Mountain, local food and folklore, or city landmarks—appeal most to citizens and tourists in Zhongshan.
City Attributes
City attributes are the specific characteristics or qualities that define and distinguish a city. These attributes include tangible elements such as infrastructure, natural environment, architectural landmarks, and intangible aspects like cultural vibrancy, safety, friendliness, and overall ambiance. Together, these attributes contribute to forming the city’s image and play a crucial role in shaping the experiences and perceptions of those who visit or reside there.
Tourism and Recreation
Tourist destinations that offer diverse activities, such as adventure sports, cultural tours, shopping, dining, and entertainment, attract a wide range of visitors and enhance their appeal and competitiveness (Crouch & Ritchie, 1999). Excitement plays a crucial role, especially for younger tourists, with vibrant nightlife, unique festivals, and lively atmospheres creating memorable experiences and encouraging social media sharing (Hsu et al., 2010). Cultural attractions, including museums, historical sites, and local performances, are key to a destination’s identity and appeal, offering educational value and economic benefits while promoting cultural preservation (Richards & Wilson, 2004). Destinations with natural beauty, such as beaches and forests, draw nature enthusiasts and offer outdoor activities, supporting sustainable tourism (Pike, 2004). Additionally, tranquil environments like spa resorts and serene parks attract those seeking relaxation and stress relief, aligning with the wellness tourism trend and enhancing appeal to a broad range of tourists (Kwortnik & Thompson, 2009). Collectively, these elements ensure a destination’s broad appeal, competitiveness, and long-term sustainability.
In summary, a destination’s appeal is significantly enhanced by its diverse activities, excitement, cultural attractions, natural beauty, and relaxing environments. These factors attract a broad range of tourists and ensure the destination’s competitiveness and sustainability in the global market.
Authenticity and Atmosphere
Authenticity and atmosphere are pivotal in shaping a destination’s appeal. Authenticity involves the genuine representation of a destination’s culture, traditions, and way of life, offering tourists an authentic experience of local customs, cuisine, and daily life. Cohen (1988) emphasizes that many travelers seek these meaningful, unaltered encounters rather than commercialized experiences. The atmosphere of a destination is greatly influenced by the friendliness of its locals, who can significantly impact tourists’ satisfaction and their likelihood of returning or recommending the place, as Madrigal (1995) noted. Additionally, a clean and well-maintained environment—encompassing public spaces, hotels, and attractions—is essential for health and comfort (Oriade & Schofield, 2019). Parasuraman et al. (1988) highlight that cleanliness reflects a destination’s commitment to quality and hygiene, enhancing the overall experience and perception, which was especially important during the COVID-19 pandemic (Awan et al., 2021). Authenticity, defined by genuine cultural representation, and a positive atmosphere characterized by friendly locals and cleanliness are crucial for enhancing a destination’s appeal and ensuring a memorable and enriching travel experience.
Economic Factors
Economic factors are pivotal in shaping a destination’s appeal by balancing affordability, infrastructure quality, and technological innovation. Cost considerations significantly influence travel decisions, especially in the post-COVID-19 era. While expensive destinations attract high-spending visitors, they risk deterring budget-conscious travelers and raising service expectations (Bui & Robinson, 2024; Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Economic hubs enhance a destination’s attractiveness through robust infrastructure, diverse amenities, and commerce, making them focal points for business and leisure (Yazici & Arslan Ayazlar, 2021). Technological centers amplify this appeal by leveraging innovation, offering intelligent city systems, global technology events, and advanced digital services. Studies in economic geography highlight the crucial role of technological networks in shaping regional dynamics of technological renewal (Wanzenböck et al., 2024). Finally, ease of travel facilitated by efficient transportation, multimodal mobility, and micromobilities, like walking and cycling, improves accessibility, though challenges such as space and inclusivity remain (Bergantino et al., 2023; Davies et al., 2020; Q. Liu et al., 2023; L. Yang et al., 2019). Balancing these factors is essential for ensuring visitor satisfaction and sustainable tourism growth.
Environmental and Safety Factors
Environmental and safety factors, including a favorable climate, manageable crowdedness, and robust safety measures, enhance a destination’s attractiveness and maintain a positive tourist experience. A favorable environment significantly enhances a destination’s appeal by making outdoor activities more enjoyable and comfortable. Kwortnik & Thompson (2009) note that pleasant weather can attract tourists year-round, encouraging longer stays and repeat visits to sunny beaches, temperate retreats, and mild urban environments.
Crowdedness can reflect a destination’s popularity but may also detract from the tourist experience through long wait times and reduced personal space. Crouch & Ritchie (1999) suggest that managing crowdedness with better infrastructure and crowd control can mitigate these issues and maintain visitor satisfaction.
Safety is a crucial concern for travelers, encompassing low crime rates, good infrastructure, and effective emergency services (Hsu et al., 2010; Paül i Agustí, 2019; Zou & Meng, 2019). Events like terrorism, natural disasters, and pandemics can severely impact tourism. Aggressive panhandling also poses a risk, prompting cities to implement measures to safeguard their tourism image and ensure visitor safety (Flock, 2023; Malanga, 2008; Millar et al., 2017; Tomazos & Murdy, 2024; Vu, 2024).
In summary, climate, crowdedness, and safety are key factors affecting tourist destination attractiveness. A pleasant climate boosts visitor satisfaction, while effectively managing crowdedness and safety concerns ensures a positive travel experience. Highlighting these factors is essential for sustaining tourism growth and maintaining a favorable image.
Generation Z
Generation Z and Information Exposure
Generation Z is the generation that grew up in the digital age, that is, between the late 1990s and early 2010s, so the bond between Generation Z and media exposure or information exposure is closed and complex. They are skillful at working on multiple digital platforms simultaneously, often consuming content across several media simultaneously. They respond well to influencer marketing, with many relying on recommendations from social media personalities when making purchasing decisions. Generation Z values authenticity and relatability in influencers. In other words, social media influencers significantly shape their tastes, opinions, and trends (Li et al., 2021). Generation Z often accesses news through social media rather than traditional news outlets. So, they tend to be exposed to a more fragmented view of current events or short news reports rather than conventional, longer formats. Video is a dominant form of media for Generation Z, with platforms like YouTube and TikTok being trendy (Coe et al., 2023). Besides news and information, digital platforms also provide Generation Z with access to supportive communities (Chang & Chang, 2023). The trend of using digital and personalized travel experiences is also of particular interest to Generation Z, such as using mobile applications, online software, or co-creating travel products through the platform social network (Loan & Hoang, 2023).
Generation Z and Travel
Generation Z exhibits diverse travel motivations, primarily driven by the pursuit of authentic and unique experiences. This cohort seeks destinations that offer genuine cultural interactions, local engagements, and once-in-a-lifetime adventures. Activities that enable Generation Z to immerse themselves in local culture and participate in hands-on experiences are more appealing than traditional tourism (Dimitriou & AbouElgheit, 2019). Travel inspiration and recommendations for Generation Z are predominantly sourced from social media influencers and content creators. The reviews and experiences shared by these influencers significantly impact the travel decisions of Generation Z (Loan & Hoang, 2023; and Popșa, 2024).
Generation Z and Job Expectations
Research on Generation Z’s intentions to work abroad reveals critical insights into their career aspirations, motivations, and expectations. Generation Z is motivated by the opportunity to gain international experience and enhance their career prospects (Barhate & Dirani, 2022). Working abroad means they are open to different cultural and professional environments, thus increasing their new skills and competencies. They rate the desire for cultural exploration as a primary influence on their decision to seek international work opportunities (Benítez-Márquez et al., 2021). Generation Z is particularly interested in working in industries related to technology, innovation, and startups, where they see opportunities for growth and impact, as well as flexibility and technological integration (Barhate & Dirani, 2022).
Despite their enthusiasm for international opportunities, Generation Z may have concerns about job security and stability in foreign countries, especially in emerging or less stable job markets (ICEF Monitor, n.d.). The rise of remote work has influenced Generation Z’s perspective on working abroad. They are open to remote or hybrid work arrangements that allow them to live in one country while working for companies in others. In many cases, Generation Z is likely to be entrepreneurial and make an impact at the start (Ngoc et al., 2022).
Generation Z and Mere Exposure Effect
The mere exposure effect describes a cognitive phenomenon in which individuals develop a preference for stimuli solely based on repeated exposure. This effect, first posited by Zajonc (1968), suggests that familiarity breeds positive associations, reducing uncertainty and increasing comfort. Familiarity, derived from repeated exposure, alleviates anxiety, leading to more favorable attitudes toward the stimulus (Nickerson, 2023). The implications of the mere exposure effect extend beyond individual preferences to interpersonal relationships. Repeated encounters, even in virtual spaces, foster a sense of connection, often resulting in developing friendships or social bonds despite the absence of real-world interaction (Palumbo et al., 2021).
The effect’s manifestation across generational lines is particularly notable among Generation Z, for whom digital technology and social media are integral (Coe et al., 2023). The sheer volume of content delivered through algorithms on platforms like TikTok, Instagram, and Snapchat intensifies the exposure experience for Generation Z. As a result, this generation is subject to a more pronounced mere exposure effect driven by continuous connectivity. However, the dynamic nature of short-form digital content creates a rapid shift in preferences, as Generation Z encounters new trends and behaviors frequently. Thus, while the mere exposure effect remains potent, its influence on Generation Z is fluid and shaped by the fast-paced, ever-changing digital environment (Chang & Chang, 2023).
Information Exposure and Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT)
Studies on tourist exposure to travel information in Thailand reveal that information exposure behavior was related to travel decisions (Bai, 2021; Sattayapanich, 2021). Personal factors, including the average number of hours on a social network, affected travel intention (Wangsrepaisarn, 2020). However, a number of studies indicated that many tourists were unaware of the TAT online communication channel (Khowpairot, 2019; Tiengpratet, 2018).
Intention to Visit and Revisit
Recent studies on visit and revisit intentions in tourism highlight a complex interplay of factors influencing tourists’ decisions to return to destinations, with destination image, emotional attachment, and perceived risk playing crucial roles.
A well-developed destination image is foundational in attracting and retaining tourists. Research has shown that attributes such as authenticity, cultural attractions, and natural beauty significantly enhance the overall image of a destination, fostering trust and emotional connections with visitors. This positive image can drive initial visits and revisit intentions (Singh & Singh, 2019; Wei et al., 2024). Fakeye and Crompton (1991) and Oppermann (2000) emphasize that first-time experiences significantly influence revisit intentions. Fakeye and Crompton (1991) highlight that destinations exceeding visitors’ expectations are more likely to encourage return visits, while Oppermann (2000) notes that positive prior experiences and destination loyalty increase the likelihood of repeat tourism. These findings demonstrate the key role of initial satisfaction in fostering long-term loyalty and shaping revisit intentions.
In addition to the destination image, local attachment plays a significant role in revisiting intentions. Emotional bonds, often formed through positive experiences or cultural connections, strengthen the likelihood of returning. This attachment is deepened when a destination is perceived as unique and valuable, as seen in the work of Wei et al. (2024) and F. Yang et al. (2023). These emotional ties make visitors more inclined to revisit destinations where they feel a personal connection.
Motivations for visiting destinations can be divided into push and pull factors. Push factors, such as the desire for relaxation or educational experiences, and pull factors, like scenic beauty or cultural appeal, are key drivers in first-time visits and revisit intentions (Hamid et al., 2023; F. Yang et al., 2023). These motivations contribute to a tourist’s initial decision to visit and often influence their decision to return if the experience aligns with their expectations.
However, perceived risk, including concerns about safety and health, can significantly undermine revisit intentions, even if the destination has a strong image and emotional attachment. Wei et al. (2024) emphasize the importance of effectively managing and communicating these risks to maintain tourist loyalty in the face of such challenges.
At ecotourism destinations, revisit intentions are mainly tied to environmental sustainability, visitor satisfaction, and perceived value. Positive experiences at these destinations—from high-quality services to unique cultural experiences—encourage return visits (Hamid et al., 2023). These findings underscore the importance of creating memorable, high-value experiences that meet tourist expectations and foster emotional connections that encourage long-term loyalty.
Together, these studies highlight the critical role of emotional engagement, destination quality, and risk management in fostering both initial visits and long-term loyalty. By focusing on destination branding, managing visitor expectations, and creating memorable experiences, destinations can better cater to tourists’ motivations and preferences, encouraging revisits across various tourism contexts. Therefore, strategic communication and branding efforts are essential for encouraging long-term destination commitment.
Familiarity with the City in Destination Tourism
Familiarity is crucial in shaping destination perceptions and travel decisions, influencing how individuals process information. It is a tourist’s knowledge and awareness of a place through direct experience (e.g., visits) or indirect exposure (e.g., media, word-of-mouth) (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Stylidis, 2020). It enhances destination image and influences travel intentions (Pereira et al., 2019).
According to destination image theory, familiarity strengthens both cognitive (e.g., attractions, affordability, safety) and affective (e.g., excitement, relaxation) components of destination image (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Lever et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2020). The mere exposure effect suggests repeated exposure fosters familiarity and positive perceptions, even without direct experience (Iordanova & Stylidis, 2019; Zajonc, 1968). Familiarity mediates travel motivations and visitation intention, reducing uncertainty and increasing visitation likelihood (C. Liu et al., 2013; Xia et al., 2024). By linking information exposure and travel behavior, it serves as a key factor in tourism marketing, strengthening promotional strategies and tourist engagement (Hsu et al., 2010; Josiassen et al., 2015).
Familiarity includes cognitive familiarity, or objective knowledge about a city’s landmarks, transportation, and infrastructure (Gursoy, 2019; S. Yang et al., 2022), and affective familiarity, or emotional connection influenced by cultural narratives and media representations (Kim & Chen, 2016; Lee & Hwang, 2022). Both dimensions shape destination image, satisfaction, and loyalty (Sun et al., 2014; S. Yang et al., 2022).
Higher familiarity reduces risk, builds confidence, and strengthens visitation intention by enhancing destination perception and travel decision-making (Hsu et al., 2010; Preko & Gyepi-Garbrah, 2021). Path analyses confirm that familiarity mediates information exposure and travel behavior, increasing the likelihood of visiting (Q. Chen et al., 2024; Huo et al., 2023; Kim & Richardson, 2003). This highlights its importance in tourism marketing, as it enhances destination image, reduces uncertainty, and drives travel intentions (Y. Chen et al., 2020; Josiassen et al., 2015).
Ultimately, familiarity shapes destination image, reduces uncertainty, and strengthens travel intentions by linking information exposure and travel behavior. Its integration into tourism marketing enhances promotional strategies and tourist experiences, making it a valuable tool for destination branding and visitor engagement (Hsu et al., 2010; Josiassen et al., 2015).
Conceptual Framework
To fully understand the factors influencing tourists’ intention to visit Phuket and Pattaya, this study examines the impact of information exposure and perceived familiarity on travel decisions. The framework integrates key theories, including the stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) model, mere exposure effect, and destination image theory, along with insights from existing literature, to explain how exposure-driven perceptions and familiarity shape visitation intentions.
Information exposure through social media, traditional media, and word-of-mouth plays a crucial role in increasing familiarity with destinations. According to the mere exposure effect, repeated exposure to destination-related content enhances recognition and preference, even without direct experience. This increased familiarity reduces uncertainty, boosting tourists’ confidence in their perceptions of a destination.
Familiarity strengthens destination image by influencing both its cognitive (e.g., awareness of attractions, affordability, safety) and affective (e.g., emotional responses, such as excitement and relaxation) components. As familiarity grows, tourists develop stronger cognitive and emotional associations with a destination, increasing their likelihood of visitation. Moreover, information exposure impacts visitation intention both directly and indirectly through familiarity. Repeated exposure reinforces positive perceptions, enhances a destination’s attractiveness and ultimately increases the likelihood of visiting. The conceptual model is shown in Figures 1 and 2.
To capture the relationship between information exposure, familiarity, and visitation intention, this study tests the following hypotheses.
H1: Information exposure has a positive direct and indirect effect on the intention to visit Phuket through perceived familiarity.
H2: Information exposure positively affects perceived familiarity with Phuket.
H3: Perceived familiarity has a positive effect on the intention to visit Phuket.
H4: Information exposure has a positive direct and indirect effect on the intention to visit Pattaya through perceived familiarity.
H5: Information Exposure positively affects Perceived Familiarity with Pattaya.
H6: Perceived Familiarity has a positive effect on the intention to visit Pattaya.
Research Methodology
This study employed a quantitative method, survey research, detailed as follows:
The research is based on the responses to the questionnaire among Asian students whose answers contain attitudes towards the city image of 2 cities in Thailand: Phuket and Pattaya. The questionnaire consisted of two sections—city image and demographics—with six questions in each section and was administered via the Asian Network for Public Opinion Research (ANPOR) online survey platform between September and December 2023. Representatives from China, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand facilitated data collection in their respective countries. A total of 2,342 complete questionnaires were analyzed in this study.
Variables and Measurements.
An online questionnaire was used to collect data from the respondents. The survey included items about demographic information, frequency of social media use, city image, and intention to visit.
Demographic Variables
Demographic profiles include age, gender, and country of residence at present.
Frequency of Social Media Use
Respondents were asked to indicate the frequency of their social media use (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Line, WhatsApp, Weibo, TikTok) with the following scoring system: multiple times per day = 6 points, once per day = 5 points, 3-6 times per week = 4 points, 1-2 times per week = 3 points, 1-4 times per month = 2 points, and less than once a month = 0 points. The level of social media use was calculated by averaging these scores and categorizing the average into five ranges: 1.00-2.00 = lowest, 2.01-3.00 = low, 3.01-4.00 = moderate, 4.01-5.00 = high, and 5.01-6.00 = highest.
City Image
Familiarity with the City Image. Respondents were asked to rate their perceived familiarity with the cities on a scale of 1 to 6. Six options were available: know it very well = 6, know it well = 5, know a fair amount = 4, know a little = 3, heard of it = 2, and never heard of it = 1. The level of perceived familiarity of the city was calculated by averaging these scores and categorizing the average into five ranges: 1.00-2.00 = lowest, 2.01-3.00 = low, 3.01-4.00 = moderate, 4.01-5.00 = high, and 5.01-6.00 = highest.
Information Channels Received. Respondents were asked to indicate from which channels they had ever received information about the city. There were seven options: 1) visited it myself, 2) someone I know visited/lives there, 3) social media, 4) traditional media (newspaper, TV news, radio, etc.), 5) TV/movie that takes place or references this city, 6) music, and 7) learned about it in a class/academic text.
The level of information exposure was assessed based on the number of channels through which respondents received information about the cities. Information exposure was scored as follows: 1 channel = 1, 2 channels = 2, 3 channels = 3, 4 channels = 4, 5 channels = 5, 6 channels = 6, and 7 channels = 7. The average score was calculated by dividing the total exposure score by the number of channels. This average score was then categorized into five ranges: 1.00-2.20 = lowest, 2.21-3.40 = low, 3.41-4.60 = moderate, 4.61-5.80 = high, and 5.81-7.00 = highest.
Attributes of the City. The respondents were asked to indicate the attributes of each city. Answers included fifteen options: 1) Offers many activities for tourists, 2) Authentic, 3) Clean, 4) Has good climate, 5) Crowded, 6) Has cultural attractions, 7) Easy to travel within the city, 8) Exciting, 9) Expensive, 10) Friendly, 11) Has beautiful natural environment, 12) Relaxing, 13) Safe, 14) Economic center, and 15) Technological Center.
Intention to Visit
This variable was assessed by asking the respondents about their likelihood of visiting the cities in their lifetime for three different purposes: pleasure (tourism), business, and other reasons (visiting friends, studying, etc.). Respondents were asked to rate their intention to visit on a scale of 1 to 6. (6 = definitely; 1 = definitely not). The level of intention to visit was calculated by averaging these scores and categorizing the average into five ranges: 1.00-2.00 = lowest, 2.01-3.00 = low, 3.01-4.00 = moderate, 4.01-5.00 = high, and 5.01-6.00 = highest.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to analyze respondents’ profiles, information exposure, and city attributes, while scales measuring social media use, city familiarity, and visitation intention ensured reliable data interpretation.
To test the study’s hypotheses, path analysis (SEM) provided a structured examination of the relationships between information exposure, perceived familiarity, and visitation intention for Phuket and Pattaya. This method assessed the total, direct, and indirect effects of these variables, distinguishing the direct impact of exposure from the extent to which familiarity enhances or amplifies its impact.
All data analyses were conducted using SPSS v.25 to ensure accuracy and efficiency.
Results
Demographics’ Profile and Level of Social Media Use of the Respondents
The data presented in Table 1 delineates the demographic profile of the respondents, predominantly comprising young individuals aged 17-22 (84.5%), with a slight female majority (60.9%). The respondents are primarily from the Philippines (32.9%) and Thailand (23.6%), with significant representation from Indonesia (14.6%) and China (9.6%). Social media usage is consistently low across all demographic groups, exhibiting minimal variations in mean usage.
Information Exposure to Cities
Information Channels Received
The data in Table 2 illustrates how respondents became familiar with Phuket and Pattaya. Social media is the dominant information source for both cities, influencing 70.9% of respondents for Phuket and 68.6% for Pattaya, underscoring the power of digital platforms in shaping perceptions. Personal experience plays a larger role in Pattaya (16.3%) than Phuket (10.2%), while word-of-mouth influence is stronger in Phuket (17.9%) than Pattaya (14.4%). Traditional media (Phuket: 33.7%, Pattaya: 31.4%) and TV/movies (Phuket: 33.2%, Pattaya: 28.2%) remain significant sources, reinforcing mass media’s role in destination awareness. Academic sources have a modest impact, while music plays the least role in influencing perceptions. Overall, while social media dominates, differences in personal experience, media portrayals, and word-of-mouth create distinct public perceptions of Phuket and Pattaya.
Level of Information Exposed
The findings in Table 3 examine the level of information exposure about Phuket and Pattaya across different demographic groups. The analysis reveals a low overall level of information exposure for both Phuket (1.93) and Pattaya (1.85), indicating limited awareness across all demographic groups. Younger respondents (17-22) reported slightly lower exposure than those aged 23-33, though both groups remained at the lowest level. Female respondents exhibited marginally higher exposure than males, but both genders still fell within the lowest range (Phuket: 2.02 vs. 1.79, Pattaya: 1.90 vs. 1.76). Thai respondents demonstrated the highest level of exposure (Phuket: 2.65, Pattaya: 2.88), reaching the low level, while all other nationalities remained in the lowest category, with particularly low awareness among respondents from China, India, Indonesia, Korea, and the Philippines (1.36–1.95). These findings suggest that international respondents have limited engagement with information about Phuket and Pattaya, while Thai residents show relatively greater familiarity with these destinations.
City Images
Attributes of the Cities
The data in Table 4 compares perceptions of Phuket and Pattaya across four key attribute categories: tourism and recreation (TR), authenticity and atmosphere (AA), economic factors (EF), and environmental and safety factors (ES). It was found that Phuket is perceived more favorably than Pattaya across key attributes, particularly in tourism and recreation, offering more activities (51.4% vs. 47.7%), a more beautiful environment (33.4% vs. 26.2%), and a more exciting (28.7% vs. 26.0%) and relaxing (27.4% vs. 23.1%) experience. It also scores slightly higher in authenticity (31.0% vs. 30.4%), friendliness (20.6% vs. 18.2%), and cleanliness (21.5% vs. 17.2%), reinforcing its stronger overall appeal.
Economic factors are similar for both cities, though Phuket ranks slightly higher for ease of travel (18.3% vs. 17.4%). In environmental and safety factors, Phuket is seen as having a better climate (28.8% vs. 23.4%) and slightly higher safety ratings (10.8% vs. 9.8%), though both cities are viewed as crowded. Overall, Phuket holds a stronger appeal, particularly in tourism, environment, and visitor experience, while both cities share similar economic and crowding concerns.
Comparison of Perceived Attributes by Demographical Difference of the Respondents
Phuket
The findings in Table 5 reveal consistent patterns and noteworthy distinctions in the perception of Phuket’s attributes across the groups. Phuket’s tourism and recreation received neutral perceptions (2.27), with female respondents (2.39) and Thai residents (2.87) rating it higher, while Indian (1.79) and Korean (1.74) respondents expressed less enthusiasm. Perceptions of authenticity and atmosphere were negative (1.46) across all groups, though Thai respondents (1.68) rated it slightly better. Economic factors were strongly positive (4.00) across all demographics, reinforcing Phuket’s status as an economic and technological center. However, environmental and safety perceptions were low (1.39), with Korean (1.09) and Chinese (1.23) respondents showing the greatest concerns. While Phuket is seen as a viable economic and recreational hub, concerns about authenticity, atmosphere, and safety could impact its overall appeal.
Pattaya
The findings in Table 6 reveal that Pattaya’s tourism and recreation received neutral ratings (2.06), with Thai respondents (2.66) showing the highest satisfaction, while international visitors, particularly from China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Korea, rated it below 2, indicating limited appeal. Perceptions of authenticity and atmosphere were negative, with dissatisfaction highest among Chinese (1.12) and Korean (1.14) respondents. Economic factors were rated neutral to negative, with concerns about affordability and value for money, especially among Chinese (1.46) and Indian (1.52) respondents. Safety and environmental perceptions were consistently low, with international visitors, particularly from Korea (1.12) and Indonesia (1.31), expressing concerns about Pattaya’s safety and environmental conditions. While Pattaya has tourism potential, negative perceptions in authenticity, economy, and safety highlight key areas for improvement to enhance its appeal and sustainability.
Perceived Familiarity of the Cities
Table 7 shows respondents’ perceived familiarity with Phuket and Pattaya. It was found that Phuket is generally perceived more favorably than Pattaya, with an overall moderate rating (3.26) compared to Pattaya’s 3.04. Among age groups, respondents aged 23-33 rate Phuket slightly higher (3.42) than Pattaya (3.17), indicating a more positive perception of Phuket among young adults. Female respondents have a higher familiarity with both cities than males, though Phuket (3.44) scores better than Pattaya (3.18).
Perceptions vary significantly by nationality. Thai respondents show the highest familiarity with both cities, rating Pattaya (4.64) slightly higher than Phuket (4.50), indicating strong local recognition. Malaysian respondents (4.15) also have high familiarity with Phuket, whereas international respondents from China, India, Indonesia, Korea, and the Philippines report low familiarity (2.13–2.98) for both cities.
In conclusion, Phuket is more favorably perceived overall, particularly among young adults, females, and Malaysian respondents, while Thai respondents rate Pattaya slightly higher. International respondents show lower familiarity with both cities, highlighting an opportunity for enhanced destination awareness and marketing efforts.
Intention to Visit
The data in Table 8 measure respondents’ intention to visit Phuket and Pattaya, across various demographic profiles. Both Phuket and Pattaya have moderate visitation intent, with Phuket slightly preferred, especially among younger (3.30) and female (3.38) respondents. Malaysian (3.76) and Thai (3.73) respondents show the highest intent to visit both cities, while China, Korea, and Indonesia report lower interest, with Korea rating both Phuket (2.89) and Pattaya (2.72) the lowest. While both cities hold moderate appeal, Phuket has a slight advantage, indicating a need for targeted marketing efforts to attract less engaged markets.
Effect of Information Exposure and Familiarity on Intention to Visit the Cities
The path analysis in Table 9 reveals that information exposure significantly influences visitation intention for both Phuket and Pattaya, with familiarity serving as a key mediator. For Phuket, the total effect of information exposure on visitation intention (0.23, p < .001) confirms that greater exposure increases travel intention. While the direct effect (0.10, p < .001) indicates a moderate influence, the indirect effect via familiarity (0.13) is stronger, suggesting that familiarity enhances the impact of information exposure. These findings emphasize the need for marketing strategies that not only increase exposure but also strengthen familiarity with Phuket.
Similarly, for Pattaya, the total effect (0.24, p < .001) is slightly higher than Phuket, reinforcing that higher exposure increases visitation intention. The direct effect (0.10, p < .001) shows moderate influence, while the indirect effect through familiarity (0.14) is more substantial, indicating that familiarity strongly mediates the relationship between exposure and travel intention.
Overall, these findings highlight that while information exposure alone influences travel intention, its impact is significantly stronger when familiarity is increased. This underscores the importance of targeted marketing efforts that not only enhance information exposure but also build familiarity to drive higher visitation intention.
Discussion
This study explored Asian university students’ perceptions and visitation intentions for Phuket and Pattaya, focusing on how demographics, media channels, information exposure, city attributes, and familiarity with the city shape tourism decisions. The key findings provide valuable insights for optimizing tourism strategies for both destinations.
The Role of Information Exposure and Familiarity in Travel Intentions
The findings confirm that information exposure significantly influences tourists’ intention to visit Phuket and Pattaya, both directly and indirectly, with familiarity acting as a key mediator. This aligns with previous research indicating that destination familiarity enhances cognitive and affective perceptions, ultimately shaping tourist behavior (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; J. Yang et al., 2009). The mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968) supports this, suggesting that repeated exposure to promotional content enhances recognition, reduces uncertainty, and fosters positive associations. In other words, these findings support existing literature suggesting that familiarity reduces perceived risk, increases confidence, and strengthens destination appeal (Preko & Gyepi-Garbrah, 2021; Hsu et al., 2010).
Comparing Phuket and Pattaya: Differences in Perceptions
While both cities benefit from information exposure, Phuket enjoys a stronger destination image across tourism and recreation, authenticity, and environmental appeal, which positively influences visitation intention. These findings align with prior research indicating that destination image plays a crucial role in travel decisions, with natural beauty and authenticity being major drivers (Khan et al., 2017; Richards & Wilson, 2004; Singh & Singh, 2019).
However, the study also highlights perceived challenges, particularly regarding over-commercialization and environmental safety concerns, with respondents expressing concerns about crowdedness and authenticity. This supports previous studies on tourism saturation and its negative effects on destination appeal (Crouch & Ritchie, 1999; Pike, 2004). Moreover, Pattaya is perceived lower in terms of safety and atmosphere, which aligns with research indicating that perceived inauthenticity and safety concerns can negatively impact visitation intention (Millar et al., 2017; Vu, 2024).
Marketing Strategies and the Role of Social Media
The study confirms that social media is the dominant information source for both cities (Phuket: 70.9%, Pattaya: 68.6%), consistent with findings that digital platforms play a critical role in shaping travel behavior (Cavagnaro et al., 2018; Li et al., 2021). Generation Z travelers, in particular, rely heavily on visual content and influencer-driven marketing, reinforcing that Instagram, TikTok, and YouTube significantly shape destination perceptions (Chang & Chang, 2023; Loan & Hoang, 2023).
While social media is a key driver of information exposure, traditional media and word-of-mouth remain influential secondary sources, especially for older and non-digital-native travelers (Bai, 2021; Sattayapanich, 2021). This suggests that marketing strategies should balance digital promotions with traditional outreach to target different audience segments effectively.
Contradictions and Alternative Perspectives
Although the findings demonstrate a strong relationship between information exposure, familiarity, and visitation intention, some studies challenge the assumption that destination familiarity always translates into higher visitation rates. Kim & Richardson (2003) found that while media exposure increases familiarity, it does not necessarily enhance visitation intention if the destination’s attributes do not align with traveler desires. Similarly, studies on repeat visitation suggest that while first-time exposure may generate interest, return visits are more influenced by previous experiences and emotional connections (Oppermann, 2000; Wei et al., 2024).
Furthermore, although this study suggests that Pattaya benefits more from exposure-driven familiarity, other research highlights that destination loyalty and repeat visits depend more on emotional and cultural connections than mere media exposure (Hamid et al., 2023; F. Yang et al., 2023). indicated that familiarity was positively associated with destination image and visit intention and confirmed that destination image was positively related to visitation intentions. These perspectives indicate that while initial exposure may spark interest, long-term destination appeal requires deeper engagement strategies beyond digital media presence.
Demographics, Social Media Use, and Nationality Differences
The study identifies significant demographic variations in social media use and destination perceptions. Although the majority of respondents (84.5%) were aged 17-22—a group typically associated with high digital engagement—the study found that their use of social media for travel information was lower than that of the older age group, suggesting a potential reliance on traditional media and word-of-mouth recommendations for travel decisions. Moreover, peer recommendations and user-generated content remain critical decision-making tools for this demographic (Loan & Hoang, 2023). For non-digital-native travelers, traditional media, word-of-mouth recommendations, and interpersonal communication remain influential in travel decision-making (Bai, 2021; Sattayapanich, 2021).
In terms of gender differences, female respondents show a stronger intention to visit both cities, particularly Phuket (female: 3.38 vs. male: 3.16) and Pattaya (female: 3.22 vs. male: 3.05). These findings align with research suggesting that women are more likely to engage in travel-related research, rely on recommendations, and consider safety and cultural appeal in their decisions (Hamid et al., 2023; F. Yang et al., 2023).
Nationality also plays a critical role in information exposure and familiarity. Thai respondents report the highest familiarity with both cities, likely due to proximity and cultural awareness, whereas Chinese, Korean, and Indonesian respondents exhibit significantly lower familiarity, suggesting a stronger reliance on media portrayals (Li et al., 2021; Singh & Singh, 2019). These differences highlight the need for localized marketing strategies tailored to specific cultural expectations and travel behaviors.
Implications of the Study
Theoretical Implications
This study reinforces the mere exposure effect, demonstrating how repeated information exposure enhances familiarity and visitation intentions. It expands destination image theory, showing how digital media shapes travel perceptions, particularly among Generation Z travelers, and highlights information exposure as a key driver of familiarity in travel decisions.
Social Implications
Findings emphasize the role of social media and peer influence in shaping destination perceptions, underscoring the need for ethical marketing practices that ensure authentic representation. Understanding how information exposure influences familiarity can help mitigate stereotypes and misleading portrayals, fostering inclusive tourism narratives.
Practical Implications
For tourism marketers and policymakers, the study highlights the importance of leveraging influencers, interactive media, and user-generated content to build familiarity and trust. These findings provide valuable insights for destination branding, media strategy, and tourism development, helping Phuket and Pattaya remain competitive in emerging markets. Destination management organizations (DMOs) should adopt a multi-platform strategy, integrating traditional and digital media to reach youth travelers. Additionally, insights on familiarity and visitation intentions can support strategic collaborations between universities and tourism boards, promoting student mobility and educational tourism.
Suggestion for Tourism Strategy
Enhancing Authenticity and Cultural Experiences
Phuket and Pattaya should prioritize offering culturally immersive, less commercialized experiences. Promoting local traditions, festivals, and crafts will improve perceptions of authenticity. Collaborating with local artisans and communities to offer genuine cultural experiences can better align with the preferences of modern travelers.
Improving Safety and Infrastructure
Addressing safety concerns is critical for enhancing visitors’ confidence and encouraging repeat visits. Measures such as crime prevention, reliable emergency services, and safe transport options should be prioritized. Investing in infrastructure improvements to reduce congestion and improve environmental cleanliness will enhance overall visitor satisfaction.
Leveraging Social Media and Influencers
The study identified low levels of social media use, so tourism authorities should focus on influencer marketing and tailored social media campaigns targeting younger generations, particularly Generation Z. Partnering with travel influencers to share authentic stories and experiences will help foster familiarity and build stronger emotional connections with potential visitors.
Targeted Marketing for Different Nationalities
Tourism campaigns should be customized accordingly, recognizing the differences in perceptions among various nationalities. For example, Malaysian tourists, who exhibit high levels of interest, could be further encouraged through campaigns highlighting the ease of travel and offering tailored travel packages. Educational campaigns highlighting the cities’ cultural and natural attractions can increase awareness for countries with lower familiarity, such as China, Indonesia, and India.
Fostering Repeat Visitation Through Loyalty Programs
Implementing loyalty programs for repeat visitors will help build brand loyalty, particularly among younger travelers who value unique experiences. Offering incentives such as discounts, exclusive access to attractions, and personalized itineraries will encourage return visits and strengthen long-term connections with the destination.
Promoting Sustainable Tourism
Both cities should prioritize sustainable tourism by promoting eco-friendly travel options and supporting local businesses. Campaigns emphasizing nature conservation efforts and responsible tourism behaviors, such as waste reduction and respect for local cultures, can attract environmentally conscious travelers and contribute to long-term sustainable growth.
Developing Educational and Career Tourism
Given the presence of educational institutions in both cities, tourism authorities could promote “education tourism” by collaborating with universities and businesses to attract students and professionals for academic programs, internships, and career development opportunities. This will diversify the tourism portfolio and attract new segments of visitors who seek educational and professional experiences.
Suggestion for Future Research
Longitudinal Studies on Familiarity and Travel Intentions
Future research should track how familiarity and information exposure evolves over time and influences travel decisions, assessing pre- and post-exposure effects of marketing campaigns.
Expanding Demographic Scope
Studies should include working professionals, older travelers, and families to gain a broader understanding of travel motivations and preferences beyond university students.
Impact of Experiential Marketing
Research should compare experiential marketing strategies (e.g. virtual tours, influencer collaborations) with traditional marketing to determine their effectiveness in enhancing familiarity and visitation intentions.
Cultural Influences on Authenticity Perception
Given low authenticity ratings, future studies should examine how cultural backgrounds shape perceptions of authenticity, helping to tailor tourism experiences to diverse expectations.
Comparative Analysis with Regional Destinations
Comparing Phuket and Pattaya with Bali, Singapore, and Malaysia could highlight unique strengths and areas for improvement, aiding in competitive positioning. By addressing these areas, Phuket and Pattaya can refine their tourism strategies, enhance global competitiveness, and attract a wider range of visitors while ensuring sustainable growth.
Research Limitations
This study has several limitations related to its methodology and measurement constructs. First of all, the reliance on a self-reported online survey may introduce response bias and exclude less digitally engaged respondents, while the cross-sectional design limits the ability to track changes in familiarity and visitation intentions over time, highlighting the need for a longitudinal approach to gain deeper insights.
Information exposure was measured by channel count, ignoring quality, credibility or impact, while familiarity relied on a Likert-type scale, limiting depth of knowledge or subjective experiences. Intentions to visit may not reflect actual travel due to financial or visa constraints, and psychological factors like attachment or novelty-seeking were not considered.
Moreover, the path analysis approach, while effective, does not account for confounding variables such as personal travel experience or economic status, which may also influence familiarity and visitation intentions.
Funding Acknowledgment
The publication fee of this research was supported by Panyapiwat Institute of Management, Thailand.
This paper’s data, sourced from the 2023 Asian Youth Survey Project (AYSP) under ANPOR with contributions from China, India, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand, provides insights on perceptions of cities in Asia among students.