The caliphate (khilafah), defined in Islamic law as a form of governance, is widely regarded as incompatible with the principles of Pancasila. Pancasila is a fundamental value of Indonesian people and represents the unity in diversity of Indonesia as a whole. Sutomo and Budihardjo (2021) assert that the ideology of the caliphate directly contradicts Pancasila as fundamental ideology of Indonesia. Discussions about the caliphate are frequently associated with specific Muslim groups, notably Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia (HTI), a branch of the global Hizbut Tahrir movement, which emphasizes political activism rooted in Islamic doctrine (Munabari et al., 2020). The Indonesian government views HTI as a radical organization that conflicts with Pancasila, leading to its dissolution on July 19, 2017, (Munabari et al., 2020). In 2022, the caliphate concept re-emerged as a significant topic of debate, driven by ongoing controversies and divergent viewpoints. Based on the results of a Pew Research Center survey that was conducted from June to September 2022 involving 13,122 respondents from six Asian countries, 64% percent of Muslims in Indonesia expressed their agreement with Islamic sharia as state law (Evans et al., 2023). In line with that, the Caliphate ideology is built on Islamic law, with God as the center and goal of the state (Hoque, 2010). Rejection of the caliphate also emerged from the most prominent Islamic organization, Nahdatul Ulama. The reason for this rejection is the caliphate system is seen as contrary to the ideology of Pancasila and the Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia (Musawar & Suhirman, 2021). Any efforts to alter the system beyond the established consensus of Indonesia as a state republic are perceived as compromising the foundational spirit of Indonesia’s independence, as declared in 1945. The caliphate system is also not i213n line with Indonesian society, built on the spirit of diversity and tolerance (Musawar & Suhirman, 2021). We searched for tweets on Twitter (now known as X) regarding the caliphate in 2022 to examine discourse related to whether establishing a caliphate would be incompatible with the Indonesian Constitution and Pancasila ideology.
We examined how users convey their opinion in the ongoing public debate regarding the caliphate in Indonesia. Discourse on the caliphate has become highly polarized on Twitter, primarily due to the platform’s capacity for anonymous expression. Anonymity on Twitter facilitates greater freedom of expression by allowing users to voice their opinions without disclosing their true identities (Coe, 2018). Additionally, prominent Twitter accounts, such as those of influencers or buzzers, often function as opinion leaders, further intensifying debates around the caliphate. The persistence of this debate, driven by controversy and divergent perspectives on the concept of the caliphate in Indonesia, underscores the need for sentiment analysis research to assess public sentiment on this issue accurately. In this article, we utilize the Twitter dataset to describe public opinion based on the case of the caliphate that surfaces as public debate in Twitter conversations in 2022 in Indonesia.
RQ 1: What is the public sentiment regarding the caliphate discussion on Twitter?
RQ 2: What topics are most frequently discussed by the public in Twitter conversations about the caliphate?
Literature Review
Digital Public Sphere and Social Media
Researchers define the digital public sphere as a communicative space assisted or supported by online platforms like websites, social networking sites, weblogs, and micro-blogs. This domain facilitates inclusive and unimpeded engagement from interested persons, allowing for debates on mutually important subjects and ensuring the processes are transparent to all participants (Mazzoleni et al., 2015). Since the early 1990s, many academics have attempted to ascertain how online communication platforms promote reasonable and critical discussions among citizens (Parnes, 2016). A study by Eisenegger and Schäfer, as cited by Sousa et al. (2013) found that the public sphere is a forum for discussing matters of communal significance, promoting transparency beyond the immediate participants. Although Habermas’ definition of the public sphere has faced criticism and has various limitations, it remains a prominent subject of scholarly conversation regarding the influence of new media on citizens’ participation in public deliberation (Sousa et al., 2013).
Twitter data has been extensively utilized in the analysis of public opinion, particularly in the field of political communication. For instance, Gainous and Wagner (2014) examined how Twitter is used during political campaigns. In addition, a study investigated the frequency at which various politicians’ tweets were included in print and broadcast media (Wallsten, 2014). Twitter data analysis has been employed in other research to examine public sentiment around certain matters. Surotonoaji et al. (2020) studied public opinion in Indonesia on lockdown procedures during the COVID-19 epidemic. In addition, Kalaloi et al. (2021) elucidated the function of Twitter in facilitating public discourse and fostering unity and public financial support to tackle community challenges amid the COVID-19 epidemic. Incorporating Twitter data in public opinion research has emerged as a method to depict public sentiment across different contexts and topics being discussed on the platform.
Additionally, social media research is employed as a monitoring strategy in governance. According to Stiglitz and Dang-Xuang (2013), interviews with officials from an Australian government agency revealed three primary reasons for engaging in social media monitoring activities for government services. These reasons include assessing the effectiveness of campaigns, evaluating the impact and response to content created by the institution, and enhancing services by engaging with the online community concerning specific social media posts (Wan & Paris, 2014).
From an academic perspective, the framework thoroughly reviews many specific methodological techniques from diverse disciplines that can be utilized for social media analytics. Zeng et al. (2011) have already highlighted those social media analytics is an interdisciplinary study field that has garnered attention from research communities in other disciplines. Therefore, our framework incorporates analytical approaches from several fields, including computer science, statistics, computational linguistics, communication studies, and sociology. This study utilizes a Twitter dataset to analyze public opinion toward the caliphate, which emerged as a topic of public discourse in Twitter conversations throughout 2022 in Indonesia.
Public Opinion and Discussion About the Caliphate in Indonesia
Public opinion regarding the caliphate in Indonesia has emerged as a significant response to widespread concerns about the potential threat that the caliphate ideology poses to Indonesia’s foundational state ideology, Pancasila (Munabari et al., 2020). Pancasila is the formulation of a traditional philosophy of life of Indonesian people. It consists of five values and national notions. Pancasila can be seen as an articulation of the historical experience of the Indonesian people. In legal terms, Pancasila is the foundation of the legal values of the constitution that exists in the Republic of Indonesia Government (Morfit, 1981).
On the other hand, the ongoing debate about the caliphate is also driven by specific segments of the community who challenge the current Pancasila-based framework. In general, caliphate (caliph in Arabic) can be defined as “the officer or dominion of Caliph;” it is common to refer to medieval Muslim polity as a whole as the caliphate (Azmeh, 2016). In his understanding, there is a lot of debate about the caliphate itself, including in Indonesia. Azmeh (2016) states that one of the understandings that Muslims believe is that the caliphate is one centralized government embodying one unified Muslim community living in peace. In Indonesia itself, as a Muslim majority country, a debate always exists among the Muslim organizations in society like Hisbut Tahir Indonesia. These organizations contend that Indonesia’s existing system of government and ideology is fundamentally misaligned with their ideological convictions and, therefore, advocate for a replacement with the caliphate system and its associated ideology (Sutomo & Budihardjo, 2021). The divergence in these perspectives has led to an intricate and multifaceted debate incorporating various viewpoints. This debate encompasses religious, political, historical, and social dimensions, contributing to a rich and nuanced public discussion about the caliphate in Indonesia. The dynamic nature of these discussions reflects the complexity of ideological conflicts within Indonesian society and underscores the broader implications for national identity and political discourse.
Discussions regarding the caliphate in Indonesia have garnered considerable attention on social media platforms. These discussions have contributed to a significant polarization of opinions, with some individuals advocating for the caliphate as an ideal system of governance while others oppose it for various reasons. Social media features, such as hashtags and trending topics, play a crucial role in accelerating the dissemination of caliphate-related messages, serving as strategic tools to enhance visibility and attract support within the Indonesian public sphere. The prevalence of discourse on the caliphate is further facilitated by the anonymity afforded by social media, allowing individuals to express their opinions without fear of social repercussions (Scott & Orlikowski, 2012).
Furthermore, the discourse on the caliphate is significantly influenced by opinion leaders on social media platforms. These opinion leaders can disseminate information, shape public narratives, and influence public opinion. Their substantial reach enables them to build online communities, extend the dissemination of messages, and foster solidarity among followers who share similar views (Kaiser et al., 2017). In the context of caliphate discussions, opinion leaders not only establish opinion trends but also shape the broader dynamics of the discourse on social media. Accounts with extensive followings, including influencers or buzzers, function as opinion leaders, amplifying and intensifying discussions about the caliphate.
Research Methods
Researchers have found that Twitter user data might not accurately reflect the general public’s views, and results from Twitter can sometimes differ from those gathered through traditional surveys (Crawford, 2013). However, it’s not always necessary for social media analysis to be fully representative (Ceron et al., 2014). In this paper, we examined how public attention and opinions about the caliphate in Indonesia have changed over time. Social media analysis is increasingly used in research, including for public opinion research, marketing research purposes, etc. For instance, Li et al. (2016) used this approach to track changes in tweet sentiment related to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear. Unlike Li et al. (2016), Our study used freely available open-source machine learning tools, allowing the researchers to validate their results, such as classification accuracy, without relying on expensive software.
Data Collection
We utilized primary data from the open-access crawling platform academic.droneemprit.id. Table 1 describes the data collection and crawling process.
The initial step involves identifying the data sources. This study’s primary platform was Twitter, and it focused on readily accessible public tweets.
Tracking Methods and Crawling
Data collection was carried out using Drone Emprit, which employs web scraping and API techniques to extract data from Twitter. Drone Emprit was specifically used to gather tweets related to discussions about the caliphate. As a part of Media Kernels Indonesia, Drone Emprit has been previously used to monitor social media data across the Indonesian users. Media Kernel Indonesia helped Indonesian citizens and the Indonesian government combat hoaxes and misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia across multiple platforms (Media Kernel Indonesia, 2024). We utilized the Drone Emprit platform to obtain data and analytics because they have provided social media data to many institutions, including government institutions in Indonesia, which suggests they are capable of providing quality social media and data science services. The utilization of a third party platform for data analysis on social media is common to support obtaining data and conducting analysis (Mohamed & Bayraktar, 2022).
Tracking Outputs
The data collected included both structured and unstructured formats. Structured data encompassed user profiles, demographic information within Indonesia, spatial and temporal data from January 1, 2022, to December 31, 2022, and engagement metrics such as likes, comments, retweets, and mentions. Unstructured data consisted of textual information without a predefined format or substantial contextual clarity.
Tracking Approaches
Several methodologies were employed for data collection and analysis:
Self-Involved Approach. Researchers actively participated in data collection using their personal Twitter accounts to monitor and record interactions related to the Caliphate discussion.
Keyword/Topic-Based Approach. Data was collected using specific keywords, with “Khilafah” OR “Khalifah” being the primary keyword used to identify relevant tweets.
Actor-Based Approach. This method tracked tweets from influential or prominent users, as defined by the number of followers, retweets, and likes they receive, in the caliphate discussions to assess their impact.
Random/Exploratory Approach. Tweets were selected randomly from the dataset of caliphate-related tweets from January 1, 2022, to December 31, 2022, without focusing on specific keywords or users, to allow us to read a broad spectrum of the discussions.
Uniform Resource Locator-Based Tracking. This approach utilized URLs to track the dissemination and discussion of news articles about the caliphate. Data was collected from tweets containing these URLs to analyze how such content was shared and discussed.
Data Analysis
Data analysis involved a comprehensive process of data collection and classification to evaluate public sentiment regarding the caliphate on Twitter. Twitter data pertinent to discussions about the caliphate was initially systematically gathered using the academic.droneemprit.id platform. This platform, known for its robust data collection capabilities, facilitated the extraction of relevant tweets from the social media environment. The Academic Drone Emprit platform is part of Media Kernels Indonesia, a reputable data science consultancy in Indonesia that provides data analytics services. Drone Emprit utilizes Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Natural Language Processing (NLP) in its analytical processes, as explained on their official website (Media Kernels Indonesia, 2024). Following data acquisition, the next step involved classifying the collected data into three distinct sentiment categories: negative, neutral, and positive. This classification was achieved through advanced sentiment analysis techniques, which enabled the categorization of tweets based on the expressed sentiment and overall tone, thereby providing a nuanced understanding of public opinion on the caliphate issue.
This study is designed to analyze public opinion and illuminate perspectives on the concept of the caliphate in Indonesia. With the rise of the Internet of Things (IoT), sentiment analysis has become an essential tool for assessing public attitudes towards specific topics (Raghupathi et al., 2020). Sentiment analysis methodologies encompass manual coding used in content analysis, dictionary-based approaches, and machine learning techniques utilizing natural language processing (NLP) (Atteveldt et al., 2021). This study employed data from the academic.droneemprit.id platform, which leverages NLP-based machine learning for sentiment analysis. We employed sentiment analysis to assess how Twitter facilitates and influences public discourse on this topic. In social media analytics, Stieglitz and Dang-Xuan (2013) underscore two pivotal factors relevant to political institutions: reputation and impression management and general surveillance. This analysis concentrates on these dimensions within political communication, explicitly examining their impact during the candidacy process.
In addition to analyzing sentiment polarity, sentiment analysis can be further refined by incorporating the evaluation of emotional sentiment. Emotions are complex psychological responses to specific situations, events, or stimuli (Ekman & Cordaro, 2011). Emotional sentiment analysis—also referred to as emotional attribution analysis or emotional association lexicon—identifies and categorizes the emotional undertones embedded in textual content (Kalaloi, 2020). This methodology utilizes a framework of emotional classifications as proposed by (Ekman & Cordaro, 2011), which encompasses categories such as joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, and anger. By applying this approach, the study aims to provide a nuanced understanding of the emotional dimensions in Twitter conversations regarding the Caliphate issue. This analysis enhances the comprehension of public sentiment and offers more profound insights into the emotional drivers influencing discourse on the subject.
A word cloud is a data visualization technique that represents words based on their frequency of occurrence, with more frequently mentioned words displayed in larger font sizes (Maarif, 2018). This method is utilized to discern the relative prominence of terms within a given topic or discourse. A word cloud aims to illustrate how extensively specific words are associated with a topic under discussion (Kabir et al., 2020). This study employed word clouds to identify and analyze the most prevalent topics related to the caliphate within conversations on the Twitter platform in Indonesia.
In this study, we use the Twitter database to explain public opinion related to the caliphate topic in Indonesia, including public sentiment related to it. In this study, some of the aspect parameters we explained include (1) the frequency of Twitter conversations regarding the caliphate in 2022, (2) Twitter conversation sentiment related to the caliphate in 2022, (3) hashtags related to the caliphate in 2022, and (4) word-cloud and topic modeling related to caliphate in 2022.
Results and Discussion
The Role of Anonym Users and Opinion Leader on Dataset
When using social media, including Twitter, a username is not always the same as personal identity (Rogal, 2013). The use of usernames is more specific to each other’s unique identities in naming usernames, so the use of pseudonyms on social media is nothing new on the Internet. By using a screen name, an anonymous user “is able to create” an entirely new persona for his Internet communications (Rogal, 2013. p 65), including expressing opinions freely on Twitter. In the context of the caliphate conversation in Indonesia, users with anonymous usernames also contributed to the frame of the conversation. We looked at the username data in the dataset and found that many anonymous accounts that did not represent an individual’s identity contributed opinions to the caliphate conversation in Indonesia.
In Figure 1, we traced the use of accounts that do not represent a personal identity, accounts without an identity, and accounts whose user(s)’ identity is unknown. Peddinti et al. (2014) stated that anonymous users are very easy to distinguish from authentic users. Users with active followers, posts, and natural interactions provide a clear distinction between personal and anonymous users. Based on the dataset, we found that many users were identified as anonymous accounts in Khilafah conversations in this study. The use of anonymous accounts does not necessarily reduce the value of the discussions that take place on Twitter. Furthermore, this characteristic appears to avoid judgment from the public regarding their views, which in the context of this discussion are quite sensitive in Indonesia. Sasse et al. (2023) explains that as offline and online environments differ in various ways, for example regarding anonymity, situational factors in online contexts may shape the psychological processes of moral courage in unique ways. Anonymous accounts help people feel freer to express opinions without being personally known.
Public opinion is often stimulated by dominant accounts on Twitter, shaping the public sentiment trends about caliphates. A study by Benigni et al. (2017) shows that certain accounts on Twitter function as opinion leaders, intensifying discussions. In their research on ISIS propaganda on Twitter, Benigni found that some accounts were designed to appear as legitimate media outlets to gain credibility. Meanwhile, in this study, Twitter users often utilized Quranic verses, Hadith, and religious statements to garner support. These religious statements are even more authoritative than the legal narrative of the state for some Indonesian Muslims.
In Figure 1, we traced the use of accounts that do not represent a personal identity, accounts without an identity, and accounts whose user(s)’ identity is unknown. Peddinti et al. (2014) stated that anonymous users are very easy to distinguish from authentic users. Users with active followers, posts, and natural interactions provide a clear distinction between personal and anonymous users. Based on the dataset, we found that many users were identified as anonymous accounts in Khilafah conversations in this study. The use of anonymous accounts does not necessarily reduce the value of the discussions that take place on Twitter. Furthermore, this characteristic appears to avoid judgment from the public regarding their views, which in the context of this discussion are quite sensitive in Indonesia. Sasse et al. (2023) explains that as offline and online environments differ in various ways, for example regarding anonymity, situational factors in online contexts may shape the psychological processes of moral courage in unique ways. Anonymous accounts help people feel freer to express opinions without being personally known.
Figure 2 shows the number of tweets on Twitter with the keyword for the Indonesian terms for caliphate: “khilafah” and “Khalifah” from January 1 - December 31, 2022. The data reveals fluctuations in the intensity of Twitter conversations throughout 2022, reflecting the evolving nature of public discourse on the caliphate in Indonesia. The analysis shows significant surges in discussion at specific times, indicating heightened public interest or controversy surrounding the caliphate topic. Conversely, there were periods with minimal or no discussion of the Caliphate. The fluctuations observed in the conversation intensity indicate varying levels of public interest, influenced by specific events or developments related to the Caliphate throughout the year. Among the 165,263 conversations analyzed, some did not mention or debate the issue of a caliphate government in Indonesia despite mentioning the word caliphate. This discrepancy highlights that the data collected may underrepresent the volume of discussions related to the caliphate, as the keyword-based approach did not capture some relevant conversations. Such contextual discussions not included in the keyword data suggest that the true extent of public engagement with the caliphate topic is higher than indicated. This dynamic nature of discourse on Twitter underscores the importance of considering both direct and indirect mentions to understand public sentiment comprehensively.
Twitter Conversation Sentiment Related Caliphate in 2022
We undertook a public sentiment analysis to assess the response to the caliphate movement within Twitter conversations. This analysis seeks to elucidate public perceptions of the caliphate movement throughout 2022. By leveraging this method, the author aims to comprehensively understand how the caliphate movement is articulated and received among Twitter users. The findings indicate that 60% (98,367) of conversations regarding the caliphate in Indonesia exhibit positive sentiment, 38% (62,363) reflect negative sentiment, and 3% (4,533) are neutral.
The sentiment analysis results (see Table 3) reveal that majority portion of the tweets exhibit a positive sentiment regarding the caliphate issue in Indonesia. Employing natural language processing (NLP) techniques, sentiment analysis effectively identifies and categorizes the sentiments expressed within textual data (Kumar et al., 2014). This study demonstrates that tweets incorporating religious quotations, such as verses from the Quran or Hadith, alongside proactive endorsements, manifest substantial support for the caliphate movement on Twitter. Furthermore, Zaluchu et al. (2019) highlight that Islamic religious references in political discourse frequently enhance the perceived legitimacy and support among Indonesia’s predominantly Muslim population. Additionally, messages imbued with religious elements tend to be perceived as more authoritative and credible by religious audiences (Nairn et al., 2015). This is acceptable because religious understanding is seen as something sacred and unquestionable by communities who perceive religion solely from the perspective of faith. This context elucidates why positive tweets referencing Quranic or Hadith excerpts receive considerable endorsement (see Table 4) and are regarded as authentic sources in promoting the caliphate ideology within Indonesia.
On the other hand, the analysis of negative sentiment regarding the caliphate on Twitter reveals that this topic is frequently associated with radicalism. Such messages often characterize the caliphate as a threat or an extreme ideology that is incompatible with Pancasila, Indonesia’s state ideology. The term “radical” commonly appears in discussions concerned with social stability and conveys the perception that the caliphate poses a significant risk to the Pancasila ideology (Sutomo & Budihardjo, 2021). Negative sentiment is largely related to statements of prejudice and portraying the caliphate as a radical threat to societal cohesion. These negative narratives on Twitter often show the caliphate as a genuine ideological menace to Pancasila. This aligns with Lim’s (2017) research, which highlights that social media can amplify extreme narratives by heightening public fear and distrust (Lim, 2017).
In this study, the Twitter platform has significantly accelerated the dissemination of messages that express concerns about radicalism associated with the Caliphate. This has led to increased negative sentiment in public discussions on Twitter. This negativity reflects widespread apprehension regarding the potential impact of the caliphate on Pancasila, which is the foundational ideology of the Indonesian state. The resistance to establishing the caliphate in Indonesia is based on the perception that it is historically irrelevant and fundamentally incompatible with Indonesia’s democratic framework, which places ultimate authority on the populace (Musawar & Suhirman, 2021). Pancasila is central to maintaining the unity and integrity of the Indonesian nation; thus, threats to Pancasila are perceived as threats to national stability and cohesion (Nurdin et al., 2023). The emergence of the caliphate is seen by many as a potential disruption to the core values of the state, thereby reinforcing the negative understanding of the caliphate on social media as a term. In Islamic history, the caliphate era is the era of glory, and some statements in social media debates regarding changing from a democracy to a caliphate government in Indonesia reflect that the caliphate is a positive term in Islamic history in general, even though it could be disruptive to Pancasila values.
Selected Tweets and Their Sentiment
As illustrated in Figure 3, although the emotion of many of the tweets in our dataset was not determined, for those with a clear, machine-readable emotion, there are four dominant emotions within the Twitter conversation: “trust,” expressed by 272 tweets; “anger,” conveyed by 164 tweets; “fear,” indicated by 149 tweets; and “joy,” shown by 134 tweets. This distribution of emotions corresponds with the sentiment analysis findings, which revealed 60% positive sentiment, 37% negative sentiment, and 3% neutral sentiment. The prevalence of “trust” suggests substantial public confidence in the discourse surrounding the caliphate on Twitter throughout 2022. Similarly, the “joy” expressed by 134 tweets reinforces the positive sentiment regarding the caliphate in Indonesia, indicating public support and belief in its potential implementation. In contrast, the “anger” expressed by 164 tweets underscores significant opposition to the caliphate. This emotion is characterized by annoyance, disdain, and hostility, reflecting public dissatisfaction with the Caliphate debate and a rejection of its establishment in Indonesia. The “fear” emotion, observed in 149 tweets, points to anxiety, caution, and uncertainty concerning the implications of the Caliphate system in the country. In summary, the analysis of these emotional sentiments reveals a pronounced polarization in the Caliphate debate on Twitter in Indonesia, as evidenced by the vast array of public opinions, both supportive and critical, concerning the Caliphate discourse.
Hashtags Related to the Caliphate in 2022
Hashtags with the highest usage often ascend to trending topics on the platform. The text data generated on Twitter typically mirrors the prevailing societal developments, making trending topics reflect broader societal trends. Conducting sentiment analysis on Twitter hashtags can offer valuable insights for content creators, enabling them to extract relevant ideas and leverage emerging trends to produce content that resonates with current public interest. By using the keyword of Khilafah (caliphate) we found 187 hashtags related with these tweets. Here are the top 10 most used hashtags.
Table 5 lists hashtags related to discussions about the caliphate on Twitter, revealing significant polarization on this issue in Indonesia. This polarization is evidenced by hashtags expressing both positive and negative sentiments. For example, hashtags like #AniesDidukungKHILAFAH and #AniesNasdemPut convey negative sentiment, while hashtags such as #time4Khilafah, #Khilafah, and #SambutlahKhilafah reflect positive sentiment. This polarization highlights the diverse and often conflicting opinions regarding the caliphate issue within Indonesian society.
Hashtags such as #AniesDidukungKHILAFAH, #AniesNasdemPut, and #HTIDukungAnies are often associated with Anies Baswedan, a significant figure in Indonesian politics. Anies Baswedan frequently appears in discussions related to Islamic issues in Indonesia, and his name is commonly linked to debates about the caliphate on Twitter. This association persists despite a lack of direct evidence connecting him to prevalent movements, highlighting the deep political polarization in Indonesia. In this context, certain public figures are symbolically linked to specific ideologies, regardless of their positions (Ali & Eriyanto, 2021). The polarization surrounding Anies Baswedan is evident in his position at the center of caliphate-related debates, attracting both support and criticism. Proponents of the caliphate on Twitter often view Anies Baswedan as a potential advocate for Islamic values in governance.
Word-Cloud and Topic Modeling Related to Caliphate in 2022
The analysis revealed that the statistical frequency of mention for various caliphate-related topics was relatively consistent.
In analyzing the relevance of topics through word clouds, we concentrate on identifying the most prominent and central terms within the dataset. The processed word cloud (see Figure 4) reveals several key topics at the heart of Twitter discussions concerning the caliphate, including word that could be translated “destroyer,” “hypocrite,” “break,” “hinder,” “forbidden,” and “radical.” These findings indicate a significant divergence between the dominant public sentiment and the thematic content highlighted by the word cloud regarding the Caliphate in Indonesia. Notably, these terms predominantly reflect negative sentiment.
The discourse surrounding the caliphate on Twitter is heavily influenced by themes associated with negative sentiment, which contrasts sharply with the relatively sparse attention given to positive sentiments. This trend underscores the propensity of negative topics to generate extensive debate and provoke strong emotional reactions among Twitter users, leading to increased interaction and engagement with the content. The research conducted by Brady et al. (2017) corroborates this observation, revealing that exposure to negative emotional content can intensify extreme beliefs and attitudes within the public sphere. In contrast, topics characterized by positive sentiment, although more prevalent, tend to attract less engagement and visibility. This phenomenon highlights the greater effectiveness of negative sentiment in capturing attention and driving discourse related to the caliphate on social media platforms.
Conclusion
Based on the sentiment analysis alongside data related to the caliphate debate on Twitter, the study reveals that 60% of conversations about the caliphate in Indonesia exhibit a positive sentiment, 38% reflect a negative sentiment, and 3% are neutral. Notably, tweets categorized under positive sentiment frequently incorporate references to religious texts, such as verses from the Quran and Hadith, indicating that religious quotations and proactive endorsements play a significant role in fostering strong support for the caliphate movement on Twitter.
The analysis of emotional sentiment further reveals a debate in the discourse surrounding the caliphate on Twitter in Indonesia, characterized by extremes of public opinion that range from supportive to critical. This debate is also evident in the hashtags associated with the discussion, which display clear positive and negative sentiments and highlight the symbolic association of political figures, such as Anies Baswedan. This phenomenon reflects the deep-seated political divisions within Indonesian society despite the absence of direct evidence linking these figures to caliphate organizations.
Moreover, examining word clouds indicates that discussions about the caliphate are predominantly centered around negative terms. These negative words generate significantly more engagement and emotional responses than favorable terms, underscoring the more significant impact of negative sentiment on public discourse and content virality. This trend illustrates how negative sentiment drives higher levels of interaction and amplifies the reach and influence of topics within the social media environment.
Acknowledgment
This research obtained data supported by the Academic Drone Emprit platform. The data was provided on the platform for academic peers in Indonesia who had open access by registering a member account.